Teaching English

pedagogics conducters of facial expression A disc of this winsome is long over collectable. . . . It is a jumbo contri simplyion to the ? days. With its emphasis on a socio literate mortal apostrophize to rendition and literacy, it nicely captures the prevailing face of academic literacy instruction. Its extremely scientific disciplineful and well- mounted balancing defend surrounded by opening and practice allows it to appeal to a wide shape of needers. Pre- and in-service teachers, in pickicular, leave behind bene? t immensely. Alan Hirvela, The Ohio State University A compendium handle this that addresses instruction issues at a diversity of directs and in a variety of slipway is just about wel experience. . . Congratulations on beautiful work, a mythical partnership, and on moving us all forward in our thinking about interpreting issues Vaidehi Ramanathan, University of atomic number 20, Davis A comprehensive manual for pre- and in-service ESL and EFL educators, this frontline tame text balances insights from up-to-date rendition theory and look into with highly matter-of-fact, ? eld-tested strategies for principle and assessing L2 variation in arc blink of an eyeary and post-secondary contexts. John S. Hedgcock is prof of riding habit Linguistics at the Monterey work of International Studies. Dana R.Ferris is Associate Professor in the University Writing Program at the University of California, Davis. statement Readers of side of meat savants, informbooks, and Contexts John S. Hedgcock Monterey Institute of International Studies Dana R. Ferris University of California, Davis First publish 2009 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Squ be, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an im photographic print of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-depository library, 2009.To purc hase your own copy of this or all of Taylor & Francis or Routledges collection of thousands of e confines please go to www. eBookstore. tandf. co. uk. 2009 Routledge, Taylor and Francis All rights re table serviced. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or various means, forthwith k at presentn or hereafter invented, including photocopying and unloading, or in any culture storage or retrieval carcass, without permission in writing from the publishers. brandmark notice Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and ar practice sessiond single for identi? ation and explanation without intent to infringe. subroutine library of Congress Cataloging in Publication selective information A catalog record has been requested for this book British subroutine library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is visible(prenominal) from the British Library I SBN 0-203-88026-9 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 10 0415999642 (hbk) ISBN 10 0805863478 (pbk) ISBN 10 0203880269 (ebk) ISBN 13 9780415999649 (hbk) ISBN 13 9780805863475 (pbk) ISBN 13 9780203880265 (ebk) Brief circumscribe say . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv assign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy meter tuition and Learning to Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 L2 rendering focalize on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3 L2 interpreting centre on the checkbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 4 Syllabus pattern and nurtureal Planning for the L2 friendship path . . . . one hundred fifteen 5 Desi gning an intensifier discipline Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6 indication for Quantity The Benefits and Challenges of extensive course session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7 Using Literary schoolbooks in L2 rendering Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 8 mental lexicon Learning and Teaching in L2 practice Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283 9 Classroom L2 information legal opinion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 nones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 motive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 work Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Contents inclose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix 1 Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy training and Learning to Read . . . . . . . .1 The genius of Literacy and Literacies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3 working(a) with Writing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Reading Processes Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Describing and De? ning Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 bottom-up Views of Reading and Reading yarn . . . . . . . . . .17 Top-Down Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Interactive and Integrat ed Views of Reading and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 arrest L2 Reading Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 The Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Components of L2 Reading Skills and Subskills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 L2 Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Chapter stocky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 and Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Re? ection and brushup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 performance Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 2 L2 Reading way on the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Who Are L2 Readers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 International (Visa) Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 EFL Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Immigrant Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 times 1. 5 Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 viii Contents Implications of Multiple Student Audiences for Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 L2 Reading in Non-academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 What a Reader Knows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 In? uences of Family and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 School In? uences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Types of Reader Schemata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 What the L2 Reader Knows closing Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Individual Differences among L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62 Learning Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 Learner Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Focus on the Reader Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 take Assessment and bunk Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 textual matter Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Classroom Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 gain ground Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 lotion Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3 L2 Reading Focus on the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78 What Is a Text? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Orthography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 voice communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Morphosyntactic data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Text Cohesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Typography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Text Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Text Information Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Focus on the Text Implications for Text Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Selecting and Analyzing Texts for intense Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Text Selection Issues Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Focus on the Text Building Bottom-Up Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Bottom-Up Skills hailes and Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 Summary textual Elements and Bottom-Up Instruction. . . . . . . . . .103 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 auxiliary 3. 1 Second ChancesIf Only We Could Start Again . . . . . . . .112 cecal appendage 3. 2 stress Mini-lesson on Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Contents 4 ix Syllabus Design and Instructional Planning for the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Needs Assessment Understanding Learner Needs and Institutional Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 demographic Pro? le . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 L2 Pro? ciency and literate person punctuate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Student Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Student Preferences, Strategies, and Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Designing and Administering NA Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Establishing Goals and object lenss for Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . .125 break-dance an L2 Literacy Syllabus Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Crafting the Course Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Constructing the Course Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Selecting and Working with textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Planning L2 Literacy Lessons Principles and Precepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Specifying Lesson Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 Organizing a Daily Lesson Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Lesson Planning Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 Appendix 4. 1 Sample Needs Assessment Questionnaire for a Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Appendix 4. 2 Sample EAP Reading Course Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Appendix 4. 3 Textbook Evaluation Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5 Designing an intensifier Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Background Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Stages of Intensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Before Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 During Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 After Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Putting It All together Designing an Intensive Reading Lesson . . . . . . . . . 190 Suggestions for Intensive Reading Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Appendix 5. 1 The Rewards of Living a cave dweller Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Appendix 5. 2 Sample Text-Surveying Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 x 6 Contents Reading for Quantity The Benefits and Challenges of vast Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 Extensive Reading De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Perspectives on Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Bene? ts of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Improves intelligence Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Extensive Reading Develops Automaticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 Extensive Reading Builds Background association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 Extensive Reading Builds m other(a) tongue communication and Grammar Knowledge . . . .213 Extensive Reading Improves Production Skills (Speaking and particularly Writing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Extensive Reading Promotes Student Con? dence and Motivation . . . 216 Summary The slick for Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 (Perceived) Problems and Challenges with Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . .217 Time and Pre-Existing curricular Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218 Student Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Curricular Models for Extensive Reading in L2 Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Overall Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 Extensive Reading in a de workry Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Extensive Reading in a Foreign-Language Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Extensive Reading in Non-Academic Class Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 Extensive Reading in Academic Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Practical Matters carrying into action of Extensive Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Getting Students on Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 Providing Access to Reading seculars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Helping Students Find and Select Appropriate Materials . . . . . . . . . .230 Des igning Classroom Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 Developing Accountability and Evaluation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . .234 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 7 Using Literary Texts in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242 Contexts for L2 Literature Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Bene? ts of Literature for L2 Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Cultural Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Rich Language Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Input for Language Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 Enjoyable and Motivating Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Improved Student Con? dence in L2 Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Personal maturement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Contents xi Stimulating Writing Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Critical Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bene? ts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 Using Literature with L2 Readers Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Teacher Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 Student Resis tance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Time Constraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Text Dif? culty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Possible Drawbacks Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Teaching Literature in the L2 Reading Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 How Much Literature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 What Kinds of Texts?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Where Do Literary Texts Fit in Intensive and Extensive Reading Approaches? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Literature in an Extensive Reading Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Speci? c Considerations for Teaching Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Literary Meta actors line To Teach or Not to Teach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Teaching Poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Teaching maneuver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .274 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Appendix 7. 1 The Story of An Hour (Kate Chopin 1894) . . . . . . . . . . . .280 Appendix 7. 2 The Road Not Taken (Robert Frost 1916) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 8 lexicon Learning and Teaching in L2 Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . .283Components of Word Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 The Role of Lexical Knowledge in Developing L2 Reading Skills and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .291 Interactions between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading . . . . . . . . . 291 Incidental Vocabulary Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292 Direct Vocabulary Instruction plain Interventions in Teaching Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Lexical Enhancement and L2 Reading Challenges andTools . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Vocabulary Size and Reading Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Word Frequency Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300 Direct Vocabulary Teaching and L2 Read ing Instruction Practices and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Spend Time on Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Teach Effective Inferencing Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Teach Effective Dictionary Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306 Consider Working with Graded Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 xii Contents Ask Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309 Match De? nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Practice semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Encourage Use of Word Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Assign Vocabulary Notebooks or Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Cha pter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 9 Classroom L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 The Purposes of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Principles and Concepts of L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329 Validity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Washback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333 Product and Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 A theoretical account for Designing Classroom L2 Reading Assessments. . . . . . .335 Reading Assessment Variables Standards, Readers, and Texts . . . . . . . . . .337 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 Reader Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .338 Text Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339 Task and Item Development in L2 Reading Assessment Principles and Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Controlled chemical reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Constructed Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353 Maximizing Controlled and Constructed Response Approaches in L2 Reading Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360 Alternative L2 Literacy Assessment Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362 Reading Journals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Literacy Portfolios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Self-Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Summary Toward a Coherent Literacy Assessment Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369 Further Reading and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370 Re? ection and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371 Application Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423 Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Preface This book presents approaches to the direction of second phrase (L2) usherers in the context of current theoretical perspectives on L2 literacy marches, practices, and readers. Teaching Readers of side of meat is designed as a comprehensive teacherpreparation book, as well as a resource for in-service teachers and L2 literacy researchers.The volume foc practice sessions on preparing instructors who work with L2 and multilingual readers at the se condary, post-secondary, and swelled levels. Teaching Readers of side of meat handlewise examines vocabulary phylogenesis, cardinal as a tool for facilitating impressive narration and as a language- suss outing goal in itself. We vex attempted to craft the book to appeal to several translucent audiences Teacher educators and calibrate students in TESOL preparation programs In-service ESL and EFL instructors currently engaged in doctrine breeding and related literacy skillsPre-service teachers of secondary position and their instructors In-service teachers of secondary English Researchers involved in describing L2 literacy and investigating L2 reading pedagogy. Teaching Readers of English addresses the take of the ? rst four groups by providing overviews of research related to L2 reading, as well as numerous opportunities to re? ect on, develop, and practice the teaching skills needed for effective ESL and EFL literacy instruction. We hope that researchers in the ? eld will withal bene? t from our syntheses and analyses of the literature on various topics in L2 literacy intimacy.Preview and post-reading review questions in Preface xv each chapter be designed to stimulate readers thinking about the cloth presented. Application Activities at the end of each chapter provide handson practice for pre- and in-service teachers, as well as resources for teacher educators. Because of this books dual emphasis on theory and practice in L2 literacy instruction, it would shell out as an appropriate primeval or supplementary text in courses focusing on L2 reading theory, as well as practical courses that address literacy instruction. As a discipline, L2 reading is still viewed by somewhat as an emergent ? eld.Consequently, few resources ca-ca been produced to help pre- and in-service L2 educators to become experts in a discipline that is adequate recognized as a calling in its own right. Therefore, one of our primary goals in Teaching Readers of English is to furnish readers with a tax deduction of theory and practice in a rapidly evolving community of scholars and professionals. We have consistently and intentionally focused on providing apprentice teachers with practice activities, such as reader background surveys, text analyses, and instructional planning tasks that thotocks be used to develop the compound skills entailed in teaching L2 reading.Although all topics of backchat are ? rmly grounded in reviews of pertinent research, a feature that we feel distinguishes this volume from otherwises is its array of hands-on, practical examples, materials, and tasks. By synthesizing theory and research in admission chargeible calls, we have endeavored to craft chapter issue and exercises in ways that enable readers to appreciate the relevance of the ? elds knowledge base to their current and future classroom settings and student readers. Overview of the Book We have sequenced the books chapters to move from general themes to speci? c pedagogic concerns.Situated in a broad literacy framework, Chapter 1 presents an overview of reading theory and pedagogic pretenses that have in? uenced and shaped approaches to L2 literacy instruction. It in any case presents a comparative discussion of writing systems, culminating with a discussion of the dynamic fundamental interactions of skills and strategies that comprise L2 reading. Most distinguishedly, Chapter 1 pull ins an argument that we pursue finishedout the volume that is, whereas certain literacy processes transcend lingual and ethnic boundaries, extraordinary characteristics and challenges set L2 reading apart from L1 reading.We embrace the view that teaching learners to read successfully in an L2 such as English adopts thought, analysis, and attention. Chapters 2 and 3 focus respectively on the two most important elements of the interactive process known as reading readers and texts. In Chapter 2, we discuss and de? ne to a greater ext ent precisely what characterizes an L2 reader, acknowledging the growing abstruseity of the term and the diversity of the student audience. Chapter 2 examines numerous background variables that in? uence literacy development, including the unique characteristics of individual readers.Chapter 3 provides a de? nition and in-depth analysis of the structural properties of text, xvi Preface with a speci? c focus on challenges faced by readers in their encounters with (L1 and) L2 texts and with English texts in particular. Chapter 3 concludes with a practical discussion of the linguistic components of texts, suggesting that teachers in some contexts may wish to present direct lessons targeting these features. In all of these chapters, we aim to present a perspective on L2 reading instruction that is ? mly grounded in the precept that literacies are socially constructed. Based on the socioliterate premises outlined e exceptionally in Chapters 1 and 2, Chapter 4 addresses perfect concerns related to the teaching of any L2 literacy course needs assessment, syllabus design, materials plectron, and lesson planning. Chapter 5 (intensive reading) and Chapter 6 (extensive reading) present detailed examinations of the two major curricular approaches to teaching L2 reading. The remaining chapters then focus on speci? c topics of persistent nterest to L2 literacy educators the use of literature in L2 reading instruction (Chapter 7), vocabulary learning and teaching (Chapter 8), and approaches to reading assessment (Chapter 9). Although the organization of individual chapters varies according to topic, all defend the following components Questions for Re? ection. These pre-reading questions invite readers to consider their earlier experiences as students and readers and to bide how these insights capacity inform their professional beliefs and teaching practices Further Reading and Resources.A telegraphic list at the end of each chapter provides a quick overview of the p rint and online sources cited, as well as other outlets of relevant information names and Tables. These textual illustrations provide hear authentic activities, lesson plans, sample texts, and so on, which teachers locoweed use and adapt in their own instructional practice Re? ection and Review. These limited review questions ask readers to examine and evaluate the theoretical information and practical suggestions introduced in the main text Application Activities. Application Activities follow each Re? ction and Review section, presenting a persona of hands-on practical exercises. Tasks include salt away data from connoisseur readers, text analysis, evaluating real- area reading materials, developing lesson plans, designing classroom activities, and executing and evaluating classroom tasks and assessments. Several chapters also include Appendices that contain sample texts and instructional materials. As readers, writers, researchers, teachers, and teacher educators, we ? nd the ? eld of L2 literacy development (which entails both reading and writing) to gloweringer many an(prenominal) another(prenominal) challenges and rewards.It was our classroom experience working with Preface xvii multilingual readers and with L2 teachers that initially ignited our interest in amass a book that would help teachers develop both professional knowledge and con? dence as teachers of reading. We hope that this book will provide its readers with surgical information, inwardnessful insights, and practical ideas for classroom teaching. It is also our hope that Teaching Readers of English will convey our enthusiasm and wrath for this rapidly evolving and engaging ? eld of intellectual inquiry and professional practice.Johns Acknowledgments Thanks are due to the Monterey Institute for my Fall semester 2007 sabbatical leave, which I dedicated to exploring the L2 reading literature anew and to writing azoic brief material. I owe special give give thankss to the M. A. students in my Spring 2008 ED 562 (Teaching Reading) course, who diligently read the draft adaptation of the book, responded thoughtfully and substantially to the material, and reminded me how enjoyable it flowerpot be to timbre at teaching in novel ways. Their hard work, enthusiasm for reading, and passion for teaching were infectious and energizing.As always, I am also indebted to the Library staff at the Monterey Institute, who not only supply me continually with volumes of books and articles, but who also chirk upfully grant me more special privileges than I deserve. kindred Dana, I would care to credit an early source of inspiration for me, Professor Stephen Krashen, whose teaching and research drew me to literacy studies when I was a graduate student. Finally, I offer my sullen thanks to Simon Hsu for his perpetual reassurance, moral support, and good cheer through the ups and downs of the writing process.Danas Acknowledgments I am delicious to my graduate students an d former colleagues at California State University, capital of California who have helped me to develop and pilot materials used in this book. In particular, I would like to thank the CSUS M. A. students in my Spring 2008 English 215A (ESL Reading/Vocabulary) course, who patiently worked with the draft version of this book, responded enthusiastically, and gave great suggestions. As always, I am thankful for the opportunity to have my thinking and practice informed and challenged by these individuals.I am also grateful for the sabbatical leave I received from my former institution, CSUS, for the Spring 2007 semester, which allowed me broaden time for this project. Working on this book has also made me once again appreciative of the contributions of two of my graduate school professorsStephen Krashen and the late David Es recognize of the University of Southern Californianot only to the ? eld of L2 reading research but also to the formation of my own knowledge base and philosophies on the subject. Both were excellent teachers and mentors, and I am indebted to them for their work, their example, and the ways they encouraged me as a student. viii Preface On a personal level, I would like to extend my love and gratitude to my husband, Randy Ferris, my daughters, Laura and Melissa Ferris, and my faithful yellow Labrador retriever, Winnie the Pooch, who was a great companion and thoughtful sounding board during my sabbatical go Acknowledgments Our work on this project would have been such(prenominal) less reward and enjoyable without the gentle guidance and persistent encouragement of our outstanding editor, Naomi Silverman. Her expertness and unfailingly insightful advice assisted us in innumerable ways as our ideas evolved and as the collaborative writing process unfolded.Despite her sometimes oppress workload, Naomi managed to help us out whenever we needed her remark. We offer our profound thanks for her con? dence in us and for her many contributions to t his books evolution. In addition, we deeply appreciate the incisive and exceptionally useful feedback on sooner versions provided by Barbara Birch, Alan Hirvela, and Vaidehi Ramanathan. Finally, we are grateful for the diligent work of Meeta Pendharkar and Alfred Symons at Routledge, and of Richard Willis, who truism the project through its ? nal stages of development.John Hedgcock Dana Ferris Credits Figure 1. 3 is derived and adapted from a engulfing in Bernhardt (1991b), Reading development in a second language Theoretical, empirical, and classroom perspectives (p. 15), originally published by Ablex. Figure 1. 4 is adapted from Birch (2007), English L2 reading Getting to the bottom (2nd ed. , p. 3). Figure 4. 4 is adapted from Ferris and Hedgcock (2005), Teaching ESL composition Purpose, process, and practice (2nd ed. , p. 100). Figures 1. 4 and 4. 4 are used with permission from Taylor and Francis. Figure 1. originally appeared in Bernhardt (2005), leave and procrastination in second language reading (Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, pp. 133150). Figure 8. 1 was adapted from a equal ? gure in community (2001), Learning vocabulary in another language. We thank Cambridge University Press for its insurance policy concerning reproduction and adaptation of these resources. The Second ChancesIf Only We Could Start Again selection by Brahm in Appendix 3. 1 originally appeared in the Sacramento Bee in 2001 the text appears here with permission. Sartons (1974) act, The Rewards of Living a Solitary Life (Appendix 5. ), ? rst appeared in the New York Times, as did the Greenhouse (2003) essay, Going for the human facebut risking discrimination (Appendix 5. 2) both selections are used with permission. Figure 9. 2 is based on and adapted from Urquhart and Weir (1998), Reading in a second language Process, product, and practice (Addison Wesley Longman). xx Credits Figure 9. 11 is a slightly altered rubric from Groeber (2007), Designing and using rubrics for reading and language arts, K-6 (p. 23). This ? gure appears with permission from Corwin Press. Chapter 1 Fundamentals of L1 nd L2 Literacy Reading and Learning to Read Questions for Re? ection Do you have any recollection of learning to read at home or at school in your primary language or in a second/ orthogonal language? If so, what were those processes like? How were they similar or diametrical crossways languages? How is text-based communication similar to and distinct from speechbased communication? How is learning to read and write distinct from getting speech and listening skills? Why? What are some of the principal challenges that you plug in with reading certain kinds of text?What are the main obstacles that novice readers face in learning to read? Why do you think it is important for novice ESL and EFL teachers to become acquainted with the principles and practices of reading instruction (in contrast to other skills, such as speaking, listening, writing, or gramma r)? The high premium that many passel place on literacy skills, including those necessary for performing well in school and in the workplace, emerges largely from the degree to which educated adults depend on text-based and digital resources for learning and communication.When educated masses think about 2 Teaching Readers of English how and why literacy is important, few question the fundamental notion that reading is a crucial building block, if not the chief cornerstone, of success at school, at work, and in familiarity (Feiler, 2007 grand, 2008 McCarty, 2005). In primary education some the globe, one of the ? rst things children do at school is participate in literacy lessons and learn to read. Of course, the developmental transformations that mark the way to reading expertise begin in infancy, not in school (Wolf, 2007, p. 223).In many parts of the world, primary-level teachers receive change education and training in teaching children to read, sometimes in two or more l anguages. As children advance toward adolescence, they may undergo free burning literacy instruction designed to enhance their reading comprehension, ? uency, and ef? ciency. Formal reading courses heighten off as children progress toward and beyond secondary schoolexcept, perhaps, for foreign or second language instruction. Many language teachers assume that teaching and learning a foreign or second language (L2)1 depends on reading skills.In fact, they may devote considerable time and effort to promoting L2 reading skills among their students, often under the assumption that learners already have a positive system of literate knowledge and skill in their primary language(s) (L1s). In contrast, teachers in disciplines such as science and mathematics, social studies, and the arts may need to assume that their pupils or students already know how to read. Such educators may not provide much, if any, explicit instruction in the mechanics of process texts.Similarly, many teachers o f writing at both the secondary and tertiary levels often assume that students know how to read (or at least that students have been taught to read). Paradoxically, slice formal education, professional activities, and use of the Web depend on reading ef? cacy, many educators ? nd themselves under-equipped to help their students develop their reading skills when students need instructional intervention. In other course, we may not recognize the complexity of reading because, as pro? ient readers, we often take reading ability for granted, anticipate that reading processes are automatic. It is cushy to overlook the complexity of reading processes, as many of us do not have to think much about how we read. After all, you are able to read and understand the words on this page because you have somehow learned to read English and have successfully automatized your ability to decode alphabetic symbols and interpret meaning from text. Precisely how you achieved this level of skill, howe ver, is still not fully understood (Smith, 2004 Wolf, 2007).Our experiences as students, language teachers, and teacher educators have led us to a profound appreciation of the complexity of the reading process and for the fact that, for many novice readerswhether working in L1 or L2reading processes are far from automatic. We have also come to recognize the sometimes overwhelming challenges of teaching reading to language learners. Reading, learning to read, and teaching reading are neither easy nor effortless. In this chapter, we consider fundamental aspects of the reading process that diagnose it a complex social and cognitive operation involving readers, writers, texts,Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 3 contexts, and purposes. We will introduce contemporary principles of literacy and literacy development to familiarize readers with de? nitions of key constructs in the interrelated ? elds of literacy studies, L1 and L2 reading research, and pedagogy. Our aim is to help readers develop a working knowledge of key issues, insights, and controversies in L2 literacy education by presenting an overview of key theories, models, and metaphors. Our chief focus is on the literacy development of multilingual learners in secondary and postsecondary educational settings. Naturally, we refer to research on L1 literacy development among children, which has richly informed agendas for L2 literacy research and instruction. In the ? rst part of this chapter, we consider contemporary views of literacy as a socio-psychological construct that frames reading development and processes among L1 and L2 learners. By comparing research and theory associated with prevailing processing metaphors, we seek instructional issues of particular relevance to the teaching of L2 reading. These issues include the niqueness of L2 reading processes, interactions between L1 and L2 literacy, and the importance of strategies-based instruction in promoting L2 literacy. The Nature of Literacy and Lit eracies Before examining the mechanics of reading, we must(prenominal)inessiness situate reading processes and instruction with respect to the sociocultural and educational contexts where reading skills are valued. As Urquhart and Weir (1998) noted, the teacher of reading is in the business of attempting to reform literacy (p. 1). Although reading skill is central to any de? ition of literacy, L2 educators should understand that literacy entails not only cognitive abilities (Bernhardt, 1991a, 1991b), but also knowledge of sociocultural structures and ideologies (Cope & Kalantzis, 2000 Cummins, Brown, & Sayers, 2007 Gee, 1991, 2003 Goldenberg, Rueda, & August, 2006 Lewis, Enciso, & Moje, 2007 Perez, 2004b, 2004d Robinson, McKenna, & Wedman, 2007). Literacy, after all, is a part of the highest human impulse to think and rethink experience in place (Brandt, 1990, p. 1).We can refer to reading and writing as literate processes, and we frequently use the term literacy as a countable noun when describing skills, knowledge, practices, and beliefs assort with speci? c disciplines and discourse communities (e. g. , academic literacy, workplace literacy, computer literacy, ? nancial literacy, and so forth). crossways disciplines, wrote Barton (2007), the term literacy has become a code word for more complex views of what is involved in reading and writing (p. 5). A literate person can therefore become competent and knowledgeable in specialized areas (Barton, 2007, p. 9). Literacies are multiple, overlapping, and diverse People have different literacies which they make use of, associate with different domains of life. These differences are increased across different cultures or historical periods (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Eagleton and Dobler (2007), for example, insisted that current de? nitions of literacy must include digital texts such as those found on the Web (p. 28). 4 Teaching Readers of English coetaneous conceptions of literacy do not characterize literacy merely as a chunk of isolated processing skills.Scribner and Cole (1981) framed literacy as a system of socially nonionised literacy practices. This view led to an emerging theory of literacy-as-social-practice (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 172), now widely known as the New Literacy Studies (NLS) (Barton & Hamilton, 1998 Street, 1984, 1995). As a socioculturally organized system, literacy consists of much more than an individuals ability to work with print-based media. Reading and writing may be the most visible or actual processes in literacy development, but literacy practices go beyond reading and writing all (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007 supply, 2000 Purcell-Gates, 2007).Literacy practices refer to common patterns in using reading and writing in a particular situation. People bring their cultural knowledge to an military action (Barton, 2007, p. 36). In an NLS view, literacy is more than a skill or ability that people acquireit is something that people do in the course of everyday life. We can refer to what people do with their knowledge of literate practices as literacy events. heathland (1982) de? ned a literacy event as any occasion in which a piece of writing is integral to the disposition of the participants interactions and their interpretative processes (p. 3). Bartons (2007) synthesis of the complementary relationship between literacy practices and literacy events illustrates the inherently social nature of literacy Together events and practices are the two basic units of analysis of the social natural process of literacy. Literate events are the particular activities where literacy has a role they may be firm repeated activities. Literacy practices are the general cultural ways of utilizing literacy which people draw upon in a literacy event. In the example . . . f a man discussing the table of contents of the local paper with a friend, the two of them sitting in the live room planning a letter to the newspaper is a literacy event. In deciding who does what, where and when it is done, along with the associated ways of talking and the ways of writing, the two participants make use of their literacy practices. (p. 37) Literacy is further understood in terms of the individuals relationship to literate communities and institutions (e. g. , fellow readers and writers, teachers, employers, school, online networks, and so on).Scholars such as Freire (1968), Gee (1988, 1996), and Street (1984) have proposed that literacy can privilege some people plot excluding others, as societies and discourse communities use literacy to enforce social controls and maintain hierarchies. The NLS approach assumes (1) that context is fundamental to any understanding of literacy and its development (Barton, 2007 Barton & Tusting, 2005 Collins & Blot, 2003) and (2) that literate and oral practices overlap and interact (Finnegan, 1988 Goody, 1987 Olson & Torrance, 1991 Stubbs, 1980 Tarone & Bigelow, 2005).Because it is grounded in social context, NLS r esearch offers implications for how we might view reading processes, reading development, and reading Fundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 5 pedagogy. As already suggested, one insight that departs from conventional notions is that literacy consists of much more than reading and writing (Czerniewska, 1992 Kern, 2000 Purcell-Gates, 2007 Purcell-Gates, Jacobson, & Degener, 2008 Smith, 2004, 2007). Literacy practices and literacy events are not limited to libraries and schools. Literacy development is a process that begins early in childhood, long before children attend school, and involves many different skills and experiences (Lesaux, Koda, Siegel, & Shanahan, 2006a, p. 77). Although L2 reading teachers may be con? ned to the classroom in their encounters with learners, literacy education should not be limited to promoting school-based literacies alone (Freire & Macedo, 1987 Gee, 2000 Kalantzis & Cope, 2000). After all, literacy is rooted in peoples intimate everyday experiences with t ext (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 173). These daily experiences can range from the most mundane (e. g. scribbling a grocery list, dashing off a quick e-mail message, checking MapQuest for driving directions) to those with high-stakes payoffs (e. g. , composing a college admissions essay or crafting a letter of resignation). Classrooms, of course, are unquestionably key sites for cultivating school and non-school literacies (Perez, 2004a). Students must develop literate skills that will enable them to succeed in school, although some of these skills may never be part of the curriculum (Alvermann, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 2006 Bloome, Carter, Christina, Otto, & Shuart-Faris, 2005 Gee, 1996, 2005 Kutz, 1997 Perez, 2004c).In other words, surviving and thriving in school require much more than developing literacy in the traditional sense Learners must also develop new behaviors and attitudes while cultivating social alliances. Novice readers must learn a set of complex role relation ships, general cognitive techniques, ways of coming problems, different genres of talk and interaction, and an intricate set of values concerned with communication, interaction, and society as a whole (Wertsch, 1985, pp. 3536).Literate practices and literacy events of all sorts involve interaction and social activity around written texts, which are the products of a kind of technology writing itself (Bazerman, 2007 Grabe & Kaplan, 1996 Olson, 1994 Olson & Cole, 2006 Ong, 1982 Wolf, 2007). 3 As such, writing is a value-laden cultural form, a social product whose shape and in? uence depend upon prior political and ideological factors (Gee, 1996, p. 58). Because the immediate social context determines the use and nature of texts (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 75), texts and their uses are inherently tied to power at some level Literacy can be seen as doing the work of discourse and power/knowledge (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, p. 151). In this view, literacy and literacy development are neve r neutral, as literate activity involves learners, teachers, and many others (Gee, 2002). Moreover, all literacy events carry ideological meanings (Reder & Davila, 2005, p. 178), although we may not be aware of these meanings in the learning or teaching process. Nonetheless, L2 literacy educators can bene? from cultivating a searing awareness of how literacy practices provide the textual means by which predominate values and identities (e. g. , avid consumers, obedient workers, patriotic citizens) are normalized and, at times, resisted (Morgan & Ramanathan, 2005, pp. 152153). 4 6 Teaching Readers of English Such critical perspectives, informed by NLS research and theory, are valuable for reading teachers They remind us that literacy practices and literacy events interpenetrate culture and everyday life. Literacy emerges as a kind of knowledge and skill base, as well as a socialization process (John-Steiner & Meehan, 2000).Describing early literacy development, Smith (1988) argued that children become successful readers only if they are admitted into a community of written language users, which he called the literacy orderliness (p. 2). Before they can read or write a single word, children become members of a literacy club similar to the community of oral language users into which infants are inducted at birth. The procedures are the same, and the bene? ts are the sameadmission to the club rapidly results in becoming like established members in spoken language, in literacy, and in many other ways as well (Smith, 1988, p. ). Unique conditions affect adolescents and adults getting L2 literacy, yet the principle that literacy is socially embedded unquestionably applies to developing literacy in an additional language. Kern (2000) de? ned L2 literacy as the use of socially-, historically-, and culturally-situated practices of creating and interpreting meaning through texts (p. 16). Being literate in another language requires a critical knowledge of how textual conventions and contexts of use shape one another. And because literacy is purpose-sensitive, it is dynamic across and within discourse communities and cultures.It draws on a wide range of cognitive abilities, on knowledge of written and spoken language, on knowledge of genres, and on cultural knowledge (Kern, 2000, p. 16). These dynamic aspects of literacy must include digital literacy (sometimes called cyberliteracy or electronic literacy), which we associate with technologymediated textual, communicative, and informational practices (Ingraham, Levy, McKenna, & Roberts, 2007, p. 162). Literacy and reading in the 21st century must be characterized in terms of an ecology that includes broad-based access to many different media (Mackey, 2007, p. 13).These media include television and ? lm, as well as digital strait and video ? les that can be stored and retrieved at will on a computer or other device in a range of formats (Eagleton & Dobler, 2007 Gee, 2003 Hawisher, 2004 Kapitzke & Bruce, 2006 Olson & Cole, 2006). Laptop computers, MP3 players, iPods, handheld devices, and mobile telephones make print and non-print sources available to the highest degree anywhere. The social milieu in much of the world is saturated with digital media. In fact, very few Western young people come to print texts without a vast background of exposure to texts in many other media (Mackey, 2007, p. 3). We must expect L1 and L2 students in many settings to know how to aviate websites and electronic texts, view artwork and photographs, listen to audio recordings, and watch live action, video, and animations, all with impressive facility (McKenna, Labbo, Kieffer, & Reinking, 2006 McKenna, Labbo, Reinking, & Zucker, 2008 Thorne & Black, 2007 Valmont, 2002). Moore (2001) estimated that more than 80% of the data available in the world is born digital, not on paper, ? che, charts, ? lms, or maps (p. 28). That proportionality has unquestionably risen above 80%, and the availability of c omputers inFundamentals of L1 and L2 Literacy 7 school settings has also increased. Parsad and Jones (2005) reported that, as of 2003, nearly 100% of U. S. schools had Internet access, 93% of classrooms were outfit, and the mean ratio of learners to wired computers was about 4. 4 to 1. Access to wired computers in schools with high minority enrollments and in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods unluckily drops below these averages (DeBell & Chapman, 2003 Parsad & Jones, 2005 Wells & Lewis, 2005) only about 16% of the worlds population currently use the Internet (de Argaez, 2006).Nonetheless, as a consequence of increasingly widespread Internet access and the proliferation of laptop and desktop computers with compact disc read-only memory and DVD capabilities, many of todays students can instantaneously access more information delivered in multiple formats than at any other time in the history of education (Valmont, 2002, p. 92). For this growing learner population, literacy i n a poly typic environment includes expertise in decoding and encoding print-based media, as well as interpreting and constructing in visual and other symbolic worlds (Valmont, 2002, p. 2). More speci? cally, digital literacy entails not only producing written and oral messages, but also generating and interpreting sounds, images, graphics, videos, animations, and movements (Cummins et al. , 2007 Eagleton & Dobler, 2007). In the remainder of this chapter, we explore L1 and L2 reading and reading development from a sociocognitive perspective. We believe that L2 reading teachers can best serve their students by viewing the learning and teaching of reading as much more than skill-oriented practice (Lee & Smagorinsky, 2000 Meyer & Manning, 2007).We must engage students in real literacy events, which Kern (2000) explicitly distinguished from just rehearsing reading and writing skills. To develop L2 literacy, students must learn not only about vocabulary and grammar but also about discou rse and the processes by which it is created (p. 17). To synthesize salient insights from research and theory in NLS and related ? elds, we propose the following global principles, which we can obtain to our work as literacy educators Literacy is a cognitive and a social activity, which we can describe in terms of literacy practices, which are played out during literacy events.Literacies are multiple and associated with different participants, purposes, social relations, settings, institutions, and domains of life that support literate knowledge (Barton, 2007, p. 37). Literacy events reference socially constructed symbol systems that facilitate communication, create meaning, and represent the world. These systems require users to understand, adopt, and even reshape conventions (genres, discourse structure, grammar, vocabulary, spelling). As symbolic systems that draw on writing and speech, literacies enable us to represent and cognize about ourselves, others, and our world (Kern, 2 000). Teaching Readers of English Literacy requires problem-solving. Reading and writing involve ? guring out relationships among words, big units of meaning, and between texts and real or imagined worlds (Kern, 2000, p. 17). Literacy entails knowledge of language and the ability to use it, as well as cultural understanding, belief systems, attitudes, ideals, and values that sentry our actions in literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 45). Literacy events shape us and our literacy practices as we engage in literacy events over our lifetimes. Literacy has a history, which de? es individuals as well as literate communities (Barton, 2007, p. 47). Literacy in the industrialized world means gaining competent control of figural forms in a variety of media and learning how those forms best combine in a variety of genres and discourse (Warschauer, 1999, p. 177). Working with Writing Systems As a de? ning function of literacy, reading is a chief focus of this chapter. Before reviewing mod els of L1 and L2 reading, we will consider factors that set reading apart from other skill areas. First, however, we would like to stress that language pro? iency and literacy should be viewed as interdependent. In outlining their model of how children develop language skills, language awareness, and literacy, Ravid and Tolchinsky (2002) asserted that the reciprocal character of speech and writing in a literate community makes language and literacy a interactional system where certain features (e. g. , basic syntax) take up in the spoken input (p. 430). Meanwhile, features such as complex syntax and specialized vocabulary originate in the written input. Together . . . they form a virtual closed circuit where speech and writing constantly feed and modify each other (p. 30). Because written languagewhether in print or hypertext formexhibits properties that are distinct from speech (Biber, 1988, 1995 Wolf, 2007) and because texts may predetermine the range of meanings that they expr ess, spoken language and written language can rarely be the same (Smith, 2004, p. 42). As a tool that increases human control of communication and knowledge, writing uses a written symbol to represent a unit of language and not an object, event, or emotion directly (Birch, 2007, p. 15). Writing practices and conventions are always deeply socially contextualized, nlike oral language, which entails a comparably universal set of